Bioprospecting is the systematic exploration and evaluation of biological diversity — at the molecular, genetic, and species levels — for commercially valuable products, including pharmaceuticals, industrial enzymes, agrochemicals, cosmetics, and research tools. The term combines 'bio' (living organisms) and 'prospecting' (searching for valuable resources, as in gold prospecting). It recognises that biodiversity is not just ecologically but also economically valuable. Every species — from rainforest plant to deep-sea bacterium to desert cactus — potentially contains unique compounds evolved over millions of years that may have applications for human needs. Bioprospecting is conducted by pharmaceutical companies, biotechnology firms, research institutions, and national governments.

Many of the world's most important medicines were discovered through bioprospecting: Aspirin: originally from bark of Salix (willow tree) — the active ingredient salicylic acid was isolated and modified. Used worldwide for pain, fever, and cardiac protection. Quinine: from bark of Cinchona tree — antimalarial drug. Still used in some contexts. Taxol (paclitaxel): from bark of Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) — powerful anticancer drug. Used for breast, ovarian, lung cancer. Vinblastine and vincristine: from Catharanthus roseus (Madagascar periwinkle/Vinca) — anticancer drugs. Artemisinin: from Artemisia annua (sweet wormwood) — antimalarial drug (Nobel Prize 2015 to Tu Youyou). Penicillin: from Penicillium mould — first antibiotic. Streptomycin: from Streptomyces bacteria — antibiotic for TB. Cyclosporin A: from Tolypocladium inflatum fungus — immunosuppressant for organ transplants. Taq polymerase: from Thermus aquaticus — critical for PCR. These discoveries justify conservation of biodiversity — we don't know which species holds the next cure for cancer.

Biofortification is the process of increasing the nutritional quality (micronutrients, vitamins, essential amino acids) of crops through conventional plant breeding or genetic engineering. Aims to address hidden hunger — micronutrient deficiency that affects billions even when caloric intake is adequate. Examples: Golden Rice: genetically engineered rice with β-carotene (provitamin A) production in the grain → addresses Vitamin A deficiency. Iron-biofortified beans: higher iron content → addresses iron deficiency anaemia. Zinc-biofortified wheat: higher zinc content. Protein quality improvement: QPM (Quality Protein Maize) — high lysine and tryptophan content. Vitamin E enhancement in soybean. Organisation: HarvestPlus is a major international program developing biofortified staple crops. Different from food fortification (adding nutrients during food processing) — biofortification produces crops that are naturally richer in nutrients.

Bioremediation is the use of living organisms (bacteria, fungi, plants, algae) to degrade or detoxify pollutants in contaminated environments. Types: Microbial bioremediation: bacteria degrade organic pollutants. Pseudomonas putida: degrades hydrocarbons (oil spills). Sulfolobus: degrades sulphur compounds. Methylobacterium: degrades chlorinated solvents. Phytoremediation: plants accumulate and detoxify heavy metals. Arabidopsis thaliana: phytoremediation experiments. Brassica juncea: accumulates lead and cadmium. Pteris vittata (brake fern): hyperaccumulates arsenic. Mycoremediation: fungi degrade organic pollutants. White rot fungi (Phanerochaete): degrade persistent organic pollutants including DDT, PCBs. Constructed wetlands: use plants and microbes to treat wastewater. Advantages: cheaper than chemical treatment, less disruptive, sustainable, in-situ possible. Limitations: slow, not effective for all pollutants, may create toxic metabolites.

Biomagnification (bioamplification, biological magnification) is the progressive increase in concentration of a toxic substance in the tissues of organisms at successively higher trophic levels in a food chain. Occurs because: (1) Toxin is fat-soluble and non-biodegradable (persistent). (2) Organisms accumulate the toxin from food and cannot easily excrete it. (3) As predators eat many prey → accumulate all the toxin from many prey → concentration multiplies at each level. Classic example — DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane): seawater = 0.000003 ppm → phytoplankton = 0.04 ppm → zooplankton = 0.5 ppm → small fish = 2 ppm → large fish = 25 ppm → eagles/ospreys = 75 ppm → concentration increased 25 million-fold! DDT caused eggshell thinning in birds → population crashes of eagles, ospreys, peregrine falcons. Led to DDT ban in 1972 (USA). Other biomagnified toxins: mercury (Minamata disease, Japan — methylmercury), PCBs, dioxins, PBDEs (flame retardants).

Biopiracy: the unauthorised exploitation of biological resources or traditional knowledge, particularly from developing countries, by commercial entities without fair compensation or benefit-sharing. Examples of alleged biopiracy: Turmeric patent (USA, 1995): US company patented use of turmeric for wound healing — revoked when India proved traditional use (prior art). Neem patent: W.R. Grace patented neem-based fungicide in US and Europe — challenged by India and revoked. Basmati rice: RiceTec Inc. (USA) patented varieties of Basmati — India challenged, most claims revoked. Hoodia cactus: San people of Southern Africa used for hunger suppression; pharmaceutical company patented without compensation — eventually settled. Nagoya Protocol (2010, under CBD): Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) framework → requires fair and equitable sharing of benefits from use of genetic resources with source countries and indigenous communities. India's Biological Diversity Act (2002): regulates access to Indian biodiversity and traditional knowledge.

Biodiversity hotspots (Norman Myers, 1988): regions with exceptional concentration of endemic species that have lost ≥70% of original habitat. 34 hotspots worldwide. Two in India: Western Ghats + Sri Lanka (endemic species: Nilgiri tahr, lion-tailed macaque, Malabar large-spotted civet, hundreds of endemic plants). Indo-Burma hotspot: includes Northeast India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand (includes Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Meghalaya). Despite covering only 2.4% of land, hotspots contain >50% of all endemic plant species and ~42% of endemic terrestrial vertebrate species. Conservation status: India has 104 National Parks, 565 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 18 Biosphere Reserves, 26 Ramsar sites (wetlands of international importance). Project Tiger (1973): Bengal tiger population recovered from ~1800 (1970s) to ~3000+ (2023). Project Elephant (1992): protecting elephant corridors and habitats.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. Three main objectives: (1) Conservation of biological diversity. (2) Sustainable use of its components. (3) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. Entered into force 1993. 196 parties (including India). India ratified 1994. Key achievements: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000): regulates transboundary movement of living GMOs. Nagoya Protocol (2010): Access and Benefit Sharing — operationalises the third objective. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022): "30×30" goal — protect 30% of land and ocean by 2030. India: Biological Diversity Act (2002) + Biological Diversity Rules (2004). National Biodiversity Authority (NBA): regulates access to Indian biological resources and traditional knowledge. Prevents biopiracy.